Madrid probably originated as an Islamic garrison, as it is though that the emir of Córdoba established a fortress on the site of present Madrid in 854. The fortress was known as Magerit and it was one of a string of forts across the frontier land between Al-Andalus in the south and the Christian kingdoms to the north. A stretch of city wall is all that remains from that period.

In 1085, hegemony over the region was handed to King Alfonso VI of Castilla, ending Madrid's Muslim era. At that time Madrid's status was only marginal and municipal power was concentrated in the hands of a small number of local families, who managed to hold on to their position when royally appointed governors attempted to wrest control in 1348. Madrid's population numbered around 12,000 during that period.

While Madrid remained an unimportant town; historical events took place in the rest of Spain. The Castilian and Aragonese Crowns were united by Isabel and Ferdinand in 1474. The peninsula's last Muslim stronghold of Granada fell in 1492, the same year Columbus set sail on his journey that would bring incredible wealth to Spain. Later, Isabel and Ferdinant's grandson, Carlos I, succeeded to the throne of Spain, as well as to that of the Habsburgs. Thus he became a Holy Roman Emperor who ruled over territories stretching from Austria to Holland and Spain, as well as the American colonies.

Madrid's status finally got a boost, when Carlos' son and successor, Felipe II, appointed the permanent seat of the royal court to the city in 1561. The underdeveloped city offered plenty of room for expansion, which was needed for the capital of the empire, but Toledo, the more likely contender and the seat of the Church in Spain, was forever miffed. Felipe neglected the new capital, as he was more concerned with running his empire. As a result, Madrid remained a chaotic medieval nightmare for its 25,000 inhabitants. For the next hundred years, Spain's wealth declined because of a succession of wars and because of massive inflation that resulted from the enormous amounts of gold that were shipped in from the Americas. Spain's rulers increasingly retreated to their capital, where they created a fantasy land of sumptuous palaces and churches. The grandiloquence was supposed to impress Spain's inhabitants, but the squalor in which the bulk of the people lived made a mockery of such royal splendour.

Madrid became a city of immigrants and by 1656 its population had risen to 150,000, mainly because of the presence of the court.

After Carlos II's death in 1700, Habsburg Spain came to a whimpering end, as he failed to produce a successor. A succession of reformist rulers saw Madrid finally lose its reputation as Europe's filthiest city, but attempts at land reform failed and the region continued to be essentially poor. Only the ruling royal court had the economic power to spend as it wished. Slowly, that wealth diminished, as Spain was crushed by the British in the Battle of Trafalgar of 1805. Later the country lost most of its American colonies and was occupied by Napoleon. In the meantime the ensuing Peninsula War for independence that was sparked by the people of Madrid, left the city exhausted and facing starvation.

During the 19th century Madrid's society remained dominated by the landed aristocracy though and the poorer classes continued to live in single-storey slum houses. Some 25% of the working population was employed as servants in aristocratic households. After Church property was expropriated by the government in 1837, a burgeoning middle class slowly emerged. It is estimated that some 1600 Church properties were destroyed in Madrid during the first four decades of the 19th century. The new bourgeois picked up the pieces, while art historians never got the chance to preserve important monuments. Living conditions in Madrid were improved with the introduction of street paving, gas lighting, sewage and garbage collection, which was possible after an injection of foreign (mostly French) capital.

Politically, the region remained a mess and conservative and liberal wings of the army staged alternating coups between the short-lived republic of 1873 and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1875. Spain ended the 19th century ignominiously, losing its navy and the last remaining colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the USA. The first decades of the 20th century saw improvements in Madrid, such as the electrification of the tramlines, the creation of the Gran Vía and the inaugural metro line. Immigration continued and Madrid's population doubled from 500,000 in 1900 to almost one million in 1931. As a result, a chronic housing shortage existed and Madrid's politics were becoming radicalized. Opposition to the Crown and calls for constitutional reform were growing louder. The protests were led by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the General Workers' Union (UGT).

A repressive six-year coup by Alfonso XIII was finally ended in 1930. The ensuing elections saw a coalition of republicans and socialists carry the day. The second republic was proclaimed and universal suffrage was introduced. Alfonso XIII fled the country and Madrid was officially recognized as the capital of the Spanish state. Party infighting, calls for revolution, a series of crippling strikes and the bloody suppression of a miners' revolt by Åœtroops under General Francisco Franco's command saw the country precariously poised between right and left. The situation reached boiling point when the Frente Nacional (National Front) was lost the elections of February 1936 to the left-wing Frente Popular (Popular Front). In July 1936 a three-year long civil war was inaugurated by North African garrisons, led by Franco. Madrid held the nationalists at bay, but the city had to surrender in March 1939, after heavy fighting in the northwest of the city.

Madrid became the home of the victorious Franco and a long period of poverty, repression and chronic overcrowding started. During the 1960's, the city's economic woes lessened, after an increase of foreign investment, but discontent about Franco's leadership was on the rise. Franco died in 1975, having earlier named Juan Carlos, the grandson of Alfonso XIII, his successor. Under King Juan Carlos, Spain made the transition from dictatorship to democracy. A moderate conservative government was appointed, opposition parties and trade unions were legalized and a new constitution was written. Madrid's first, free municipal elections were held in 1979 and power has since shifted between left-wing and right-of-the-centre councils.

The end of the 20th century saw the revival of artistic and cultural activity in Madrid. The old center was restored and public housing and transportation were improved. Nowadays, Madrid is a remarkably lively, happening city, despite its rocky history and continuing problems, although its nightlife isn't as vibrant as it was in the celebratory late 1970's and 1980's.

Despite of that Madrid boasts a nightlife as no other European city. The capital's center is very busy late into the night. To experience Madrid is to explore its restaurants and eateries, prop up its countless bars, and to be swept up in the nocturnal madness of its music scene and clubs. Madrid has always been a place of immigrants and transients and, as a result, the city is unusually open and accessible. Ambitious programs to modernize the city are afoot, but Madrid's gatos (locals) can rest assured that their town remains as refreshingly as ever.

Madrid is a huge city in which it's easy to get lost. It is amazing that an enormous city like this, surrounded by a massive arid area, can be so green and fresh. Most interesting places lie between Campo del Moro in the west and Parque del Buen Retiro in the east. Madrid's busiest street is Gran Vía, while Plaza Mayor is the city's lively heart. There are many interesting sites, museums and parks, scattered all over the capital's compact center. Their quality makes up for the hassle locating them. Madrid is home to many of the world's leading museums and art galleries.

The city's main north-south artery is the Paseo de la Castellana. It turns into Paseo de los Recoletos and Paseo del Prado and it connects the city's two main train stations, Chamartín and Atocha. Madrid's oldest quarters lie between Paseo del Prado (where you'll find the city's great art galleries) and the Palacio Real to the west. Madrid is Europe's highest capital. It sits at an altitude of 650m (2100 feet).

As in much of Spain, spring (March to May) and October are the best times to be in Madrid. During these periods, the weather is generally agreeable, the city has a fresh feel to it and there are not too many tourists. Labor Day is celebrated on 1 May. If you like to party you shouldn't miss Madrid's biggest fiesta in February/March: the carnivale, during which the whole city goes crazy. You might like to book ahead though, it's a tough month for tracking down accommodation, as numerous Spaniards head for Madrid then. The Fiesta de la Comunidad de Madrid is held on 2 May and Fiestas de San Isidro take place on 15 May.

From late June until the first weeks of September is summer in Spain. During that time, the summer heat in Madrid can be appalling. Temperatures average well above 30°C (85°F). There's localized mayhem in June-July when the city's districts celebrate their various saints' days.

Spain's National Day is on 12 October. The winter months are very cold in Madrid, with temperatures averaging 2-11°C (36-52°F), though February occasionally sees crisp blue days with temperatures around 17°C (60°F). New Year's Day is on 1 January.

Altogether, there are 14 official holidays a year in Madrid, including all the major Catholic festivals. Offices, banks and some shops close on public holidays and they often also close on the intervening day if the holiday falls close to a weekend. In August, Madrid is just about evacuated, as most locals head off on their holidays. Numerous restaurants and shops are closed for the month.

The Museo del Prado is one of the greatest art galleries in the world. You can find anything from Spanish, Flemish and Italian art from the 15th to 19th century to Goya, El Greco and Diego Velázquez. Minor Spanish artists such as de Ribera and Murillo are also represented. The Museo del Prado is very large and it is impossible to see everything during just one visit. Another reason to visit it more than once, is that at any given time fewer than half of the collection is on view.

Madrid's municipal museum is housed in a former hospital building that boasts an interesting Baroque entrance by Pedro de Ribera. The collection begins with Iron and Bronze Age artifacts, but there are also displays on the Visigoths and Muslims. The Habsburg and Bourbon periods are represented with paintings, models and period furniture and there are several Goyas on display. One of the museum's highlights is a huge model of Madrid dating from 1830.

Other very interesting museums include the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza and the Reina Sofía collections, which represent respectively European and modern Spanish movements. The Reina Sofía collection is dominated by Picasso's masterly Guernica. The Museo de la Escultura Abstracta is also worth a visit, while another excellent place to see art is the Casón del Buen Retiro.

Madrid's central point is Puerta del Sol (Sun Gate), where thousands of Spaniards gather every year to celebrate New Year. The locals (Madrileños) call it Sol. The building itself is of little interest, but it lies central to most interesting sites, so it's a good place to start exploring. The imperial legacy of Habsburgs Carlos I, Felipe II and their successors can best be seen in the area surrounding the Puerta del Sol.

Not far to the west lies Plaza Mayor, a popular stage over the centuries for royal festivities, autos-de-fe and bullfights. Nowadays it is the city's liveliest square and packed with open-air cafés. On Sunday mornings the busy El Rastro, a huge flea-market is held there. The Baroque Basilica de San Isidro to the south is home to the remains of the city's patron saint. West of the Plaza Mayor is the 17th-century Ayuntamiento (town hall), a typical Habsburg structure of granite and slate spires.

The Palacio Real (Royal Palace) is a huge Italianate Baroque building that includes some 2800 rooms. Construction was begun by Felipe V, after its forerunner, the Alcázar, was destructed by fire in 1734. The building includes an amazing variety of decorated walls and ceilings and around 50 rooms are open to the public. The first rooms you will come to are taken up by the Farmacia Real, a seemingly endless parade of medicine jars and the Armería Real, which boasts a shiny collection of Habsburg weapons and armor. A grand stairway leads to the royal apartments, culminating in the beautiful Throne Room with its crimson walls and Tiepolo ceilings.

Immediately south of the palace is one of Madrid's oldest districts, the Moorish quarter. There you can see the only remaining evidence of Madrid's early-medieval Muslim roots in the form of a short stretch of city wall. The wall was built in the beginning of the 9th century. In summer open-air theatre and music performances are held there.

The Parque del Buen Retiro is one of Madrid's loveliest public gardens. Alfonso XII's massive mausoleum and the sphinx-laden Egyptian Fountain are adjacent to the artificial lake at the center of the park. Boats can be hired to explore the lake and in the summer, puppet shows are held for the kids. The park has a particularly beautiful rose garden, known as La Rosaleda, as well as a somewhat sinister statue of El Ángel Caído, said to be the first statue ever dedicated to the dark lord. Inside the park you will also find the Palacio de Cristal (Glass Palace).

If you want to see more exotic green you can always visit the Real Jardin Botánico (Botanic gardens) or the railway station of Atocha. The main hall of this station has a system of pipes that provides a warm, humid climate for the small rainforest growing in it.

The Plaza de Toros Monumental de Las Ventas is Madrid's most stylish and important bullfighting ring. It is also the world's largest bullring and one of the best places to experience the atmosphere of a bullfight (corrida). The season starts in February and there are many small local corridas throughout spring and summer. The main bullfighting-event is the feria, which takes place in mid-May. It consists of four weeks of bloodletting and it is part of the festival of San Isidro.

Another architectural marvel is the Cathedral de Nuestra Señora de la Almudena. People had been working on it for 110 years when it opened to the public in 1992. To the east of the center are the Plaza de la Cibeles and the nearby Puerta de Alcalá. Moncloa is the castle where the Spanish royal family resides. It lies in the outskirts not far from a TV tower, which provides good views over the capital. In Madrid's outskirts you can encounter the most amazing modern architecture.

Palacio Real de El Pardo is only 15 km (19 miles) north of Madrid. It is the nearest of several regal escape hatches. The palace was Franco's favored residence, but already in the 1550's, it was one of Felipe II's most favorite refuges. Inside the palace, several hundred tapestries are displayed, some of which are based on cartoons by Goya. In the grounds is an elaborate 'cottage' that was built for Carlos IV in 1786.

You can get to Palacio Real de El Pardo by bus no. 601 from Plaza de la Moncloa in Madrid. Buses depart every 15 minutes.

San Lorenzo de El Escorial is a majestic palace/monastery complex that was built against the protective wall of the Sierra de Guadarrama. It is about one hour northwest of Madrid by bus or train and it has a mild and healthy climate, which has always made it a refuge for the locals. Renaissance master-architect Juan de Herrera designed the palace/monastery between 1562 and 1584 on the orders of Felipe II, who died there in 1598. The complex includes a basilica, Felipe II's palace, the royal mausoleum, several art collections, a library and a museum.

You can get to San Lorenzo de El Escorial by bus from the Intercambiador de Autobuses at the Moncloa metro station in Madrid. The trip takes about an hour and buses depart every 20 minutes. If you prefer traveling by train, you should take the cercanía from Atocha station. The trains serve El Escorial via Chamartín.

The hills of the Sierra de Guadarrama are a favorite escape for madrileños. There are many tiny pueblos (villages) to explore, as well as numerous interesting walking trails.

The village of Manzanares El Real is home to a 15th-century castle. Nearby trails lead to gorgeous freshwater pools. The area around the mountain town of Cercedilla is popular with hikers and mountain bikers and skiing is possible on the pistes of Navacerrada and Costos.

You can get to the region by bus no. 724, which runs regularly from Plaza de Castilla in Madrid to Manzanares. Navacerrada and Cercedilla can be reached by cercanía train from Madrid's Chamartín station, or by bus from Intercambiador de Autobuses de Moncloa.

There are countless art galleries in Madrid. The city has an interesting bar culture and many bullfights are organized throughout the year. Most of the city's outdoor swimming pools are open from June to September and there are indoor pools for the rest of the year. In July and August a couple of big aqua parks open outside Madrid too. The most extensive tennis courts are on the northern side of the lake in the Casa de Campo and golf can be played at various places also. Golf Park is conveniently open to all. Football is the favored spectator sport; there are two major clubs in Madrid. The city has an excellent variety of restaurants for alfresco dining if you want to take it easier.

Madrid's Barajas airport is the most important international transport hub in Spain and most major international carriers service it. The airport is 13 km northeast of the city and has excellent rail and road connections with the city center. The metro is fast and comfortable. Line 8 runs from the airport to Nuevos Ministerios (12 minutes), where transportation to the rest of the city is available. You can also take the airport bus to Plaza de Colón in the city center, but traffic can be a problem, so the metro is a safer bet. Another option is to take a taxi, or a AeroCITY minibus door-to-door (from the city center) service, which is cheaper if you are with more people.

Madrid has good train and bus connections with numerous cities throughout Spain, but these overland options are usually far more arduous and often no cheaper than flying. There are two large railway stations in Madrid, Atocha in the south and Chamartin in the north. There are a range of train services, domestic and international. There are eight bus stations in Madrid, each one servicing different parts of Spain, Europe and Morocco. Driving to Madrid from Portugal or France is easy, as most of Spain's major highways feed into the capital.

The best way to get around the city is by metro. The system is fast and efficient, while buses and regional trains (cercanías) usually fill in the gaps. Another good option is to rent a car. Driving in Madrid is comparatively easier than in other Latin cities and the rental options range from big-name agencies to smaller, but often cheaper, local operators.

Taxis are not too expensive by European standards and well regulated. Lots of people use mopeds to get around town. If you want to explore Madrid's compact city center, walking is the best option, but beware of all the cars!

Halfway between the Paseo del Prado and the Palacio Real lie the barrios (districts) southeast of Puerta del Sol, which are filled with countless restaurants, bars and cafes. They lead to the working-class district of Lavapiés. Many pensiones and hostales can be found around Puerta del Sol, Plaza de Santa Ana and the barrios of Malasaña and Chueca, while along the Gran Vía you'll find numerous hotels.

There is always plenty of accommodation available in Madrid in all price classes. Especially in the summer when all locals are cooling off in the beach-resorts, it is very easy to find a bargain place. There are hotels, hostels and guesthouses all over the city, but the more popular places are in the Santa Ana district. Campings can be found in the outskirts. Most popular restaurants, bars, discos, etc. are concentrated around Malasaña near Plaza del Dos de Mayo, although there are numerous less popular places everywhere in Madrid.

Madrid covers a total area of 607 km² (236 sq miles). The time zone is GMT/UTC +1 and the telephone area code is 91. In Madrid electricity is 220V/50Hz.