Statistical information Antarctica 1996
Antarctica in the World
Antarctica - Introduction 1996
top of pageBackground: Speculation over the existence of a 'southern land' was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Peninsula region and areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1838 was it established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands. Various 'firsts' were achieved in the early 20th century including: 1902 first balloon flight (by British explorer Robert Falcon SCOTT); 1912 first to the South Pole (five Norwegian explorers under Roald AMUNDSEN); 1928 first fixed-wing aircraft flight (by Australian adventurer/explorer Sir Hubert WILKINS); 1929 first flight over the South Pole (by Americans Richard BYRD and Bernt BALCHEN); and 1935 first transantarctic flight (American Lincoln ELLSWORTH). Following World War II there was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent. A number of countries have set up year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims but no other country recognizes these claims. In order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the continent an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in 1959 it entered into force in 1961.
Antarctica - Geography 1996
top of pageLocation: Continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle Geographic coordinates:90 00 S, 0 00 E
Geographic coordinates
Map reference
Area
Total area total: 14 million km² (est.)
Land: 14 million km² (est.)
Comparative: slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
Land boundaries
Coastline: 17,968 km Maritime claims:None, see entry on International disputes International disputes:Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary below; sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US reserves the right to do so; no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
Maritime claims
Climate: Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing
Terrain: about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to about 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
Highest point: Vinson Massif 5,140 m Natural resources:None presently exploited; iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities Land use:
Arable land: 0%
Permanent crops: 0%
Meadows and pastures: 0%
Forest and woodland: 0%
Other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) Irrigated land:0 km²
Current issues: in October 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield, which protects the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had dwindled to the lowest level recorded over Antarctica since 1975 when measurements were first taken
Natural hazards: katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
International agreements: NA
Note: the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
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Geography
Antarctica - People 1996
top of pagePopulation: No indigenous inhabitants; note_there are seasonally staffed research stations Summer (January) population:Over 4,115 total; Argentina 207, Australia 268, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Chile 256, China NA, Ecuador NA, Finland 11, France 78, Germany 32, Greenpeace 12, India 60, Italy 210, Japan 59, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 264, Norway 23, Peru 39, Poland NA, South Africa 79, Spain 43, Sweden 10, UK 116, Uruguay NA, US 1,666, former USSR 565 (1989-90) Winter (July) population:Over 1,046 total; Argentina 150, Australia 71, Brazil 12, Chile 73, China NA, France 33, Germany 19, Greenpeace 5, India 1, Japan 38, South Korea 14, NZ 11, Poland NA, South Africa 12, UK 69, Uruguay NA, US 225, former USSR 313 (1989-90) Year-round stations:42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2, Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 2, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Poland 1, South Africa 3, UK 5, Uruguay 1, US 3, former USSR 6 (1990-91) Summer-only stations:Over 38 total; Argentina 7, Australia 3, Chile 5, Germany 3, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 4, NZ 2, Norway 1, Peru 1, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Sweden 2, UK 1, US numerous, former USSR 5 (1989-90; note_the disintegration of the former USSR has placed the status and future of its Antarctic facilities in doubt; stations may be subject to closings at any time because of ongoing economic difficulties
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Antarctica - Government 1996
top of pageCountry name
Conventional long form: none
Conventional short form: Antarctica
Government type
Antarctic Treaty Summary: The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings_the 18th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Japan in April 1993. Currently, there are 42 treaty member nations:26 consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 19 nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are_Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are_Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and Russia. Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are_Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and Ukraine (1992).
Article 1: area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose
Article 2: freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue
Article 3: free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and other international agencies
Article 4: does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force
Article 5: prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes
Article 6: includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south
Article 7: treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given
Article 8: allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states
Article 9: frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations
Article 10: treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty
Article 11: disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ
Articles 12 13 14: deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations Other agreements:More than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include_Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected; in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed and awaits ratification; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; 21 parties have ratified Protocol as of April 1996 Legal system:US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2,401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute:The taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected or scientific areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and 1 year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs, Room 5,801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20,520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22,230 (703) 306-1031.
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Antarctica - Economy 1996
top of pageEconomy overview:
The Norwegian invention of the exploding harpoon in 1870 revolutionised whaling and its impact was felt in the Antarctic waters as much as anywhere. Between 1904 and 1966, when the majority of whaling ceased, a total of 41,515 blue whales were caught along with 87,555 fins, 26,754 humpbacks, 15,128 seis and 3,716 sperm whales_a total of 175,250 animals! And today around 300 whales are still taken from the Antarctic waters by the Japanese for 'research'; that is, they sell the flesh to fund their marine research programmes (whale meat is highly prized in Japanese eateries). Krill is harvested by the Japanese (and a small amount by Russia) at around 100,000 tonnes per anum. The long-line trawling techniques used for catching tuna in the Southern Ocean also manage to snare and drown about 40,000 albatrosses that steal bait from the lines. Iron ore, coal and other mineral deposits have been found on the continent but their quantities and qualities are unknown. Oil and natural gas are said to exist under the continental shelf but at the moment commercial exploitation is uneconomic.
Since 1988, two international conventions have been signed to protect the Antarctic from commercial mineral exploitation. The first was the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources Activities (CRAMRA) signed by all 26 members of the Antarctic Treaty. Australia and then France repudiated their signatures preferring instead the Protocol on Environmental Protection signed in Madrid in 1991 again by all 26 members of the Antarctic Treaty. This protects the continent from all mining activities for 50 years. The convention requires that all 26 countries enact national legislation to make it international law, and this is yet to happen.
No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad.
Since 1988, two international conventions have been signed to protect the Antarctic from commercial mineral exploitation. The first was the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources Activities (CRAMRA) signed by all 26 members of the Antarctic Treaty. Australia and then France repudiated their signatures preferring instead the Protocol on Environmental Protection signed in Madrid in 1991 again by all 26 members of the Antarctic Treaty. This protects the continent from all mining activities for 50 years. The convention requires that all 26 countries enact national legislation to make it international law, and this is yet to happen.
No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad.
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Antarctica - Energy 1996
top of pageElectricity
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Energy consumption per capita
Antarctica - Communication 1996
top of pageTelephones
Telephone system: NA telephones
Domestic: NA
International: NA
Broadcast media
Internet
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Antarctica - Military 1996
top of pageMilitary expenditures
Military and security forces
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Space program
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Antarctica - Transportation 1996
top of pageNational air transport system
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Antarctica - Transnational issues 1996
top of pageDisputes international
Refugees and internally displaced persons
Illicit drugs