Background: The peoples of Mongolia have a long history under a number of nomadic empires dating back to the Xiongnu in the 4th century B.C., and the name Mongol goes back to at least the 11th century A.D. The most famous Mongol, TEMÜÜJIN (aka Genghis Khan), emerged as the ruler of all Mongols in the early 1200s. By the time of his death in 1227, he had created through conquest a Mongol Empire that extended across much of Eurasia. His descendants, including ÖGÖDEI and KHUBILAI (aka Kublai Khan), continued to conquer Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the rest of China, where KHUBILAI established the Yuan Dynasty in the 1270s. The Mongols attempted to invade Japan and Java before their empire broke apart in the 14th century. In the 17th century, Mongolia fell under the rule of the Manchus of the Chinese Qing Dynasty. After Manchu rule collapsed in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, finally winning it in 1921 with help from the Soviet Union. Mongolia became a socialist state (the Mongolian People’s Republic) in 1924. Until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, Mongolia was a Soviet satellite state and relied heavily on economic, military, and political assistance from Moscow. The period was also marked by purges, political repression, economic stagnation, and tensions with China. Mongolia peacefully transitioned to an independent democracy in 1990. In 1992, it adopted a new constitution and established a free-market economy. Since the country's transition, it has conducted a series of successful presidential and legislative elections. Throughout the period, the ex-communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party -- which took the name Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) in 2010 -- has competed for political power with the Democratic Party and several other smaller parties. For most of its democratic history, Mongolia has had a divided government, with the presidency and the parliamentary majority held by different parties but that changed in 2021, when the MPP won the presidency after having secured a supermajority in parliament in 2020. Mongolia’s June 2021 presidential election delivered a decisive victory for MPP candidate Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH. Mongolia maintains close cultural, political, and military ties with Russia, while China is its largest economic partner. Mongolia’s foreign relations are focused on preserving its autonomy by balancing relations with China and Russia, as well as its other major partners, Japan, South Korea, and the US.

Area
Total: 1,564,116 km²
Land: 1,553,556 km²
Water: 10,560 km²
Comparative: slightly smaller than Alaska; more than twice the size of Texas

Land boundaries
Total: 8,082 km
Border countries (2): (2) China 4,630 km; Russia 3,452 km

Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)

Maritime claims: none (landlocked)

Climate: desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges)

Terrain: vast semidesert and desert plains, grassy steppe, mountains in west and southwest; Gobi Desert in south-central

Elevation
Highest point: Nayramadlin Orgil (Khuiten Peak) 4,374 m
Lowest point: Hoh Nuur 560 m
Mean elevation: 1,528 m

Land use
Agricultural land: 69% (2023 est.)
Arable land: 0.7% (2023 est.)
Permanent crops: 0% (2023 est.)
Permanent pasture: 68.2% (2023 est.)
Forest: 9.1% (2023 est.)
Other: 21.9% (2023 est.)

Irrigated land: 796 km² (2022)

Major rivers: Amur (shared with China [s] and Russia [m]) - 4,444 km
Note: [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

Natural hazards: dust storms; grassland and forest fires; drought; 'zud,' which is harsh winter conditions

Geography
Note: landlocked; strategic location between China and Russia

Population
Total: 3,281,676 (2024 est.)
Male: 1,595,596
Female: 1,686,080
Distribution: population sparsely distributed throughout the country; the capital of Ulaanbaatar and the northern city of Darhan support the highest population densities
Growth rate: 0.78% (2024 est.)

Languages: Mongolian 90% (official, Khalkha dialect is predominant), Turkic, Russian (1999)
Major-language sample(s): ; Дэлхийн баримтат ном, үндсэн мэдээллийн зайлшгүй эх сурвалж. (Mongolian); The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.

Religions: Buddhist 51.7%, Muslim 3.2%, Shamanist 2.5%, Christian 1.3%, other 0.7%, none 40.6% (2020 est.)

Age structure
0-14 years: 25.7% (male 429,867/female 412,943)
15-64 years: 68.4% (male 1,087,487/female 1,156,547)
65 years and over: 5.9% (2024 est.) (male 78,242/female 116,590)

Dependency ratios
Total dependency ratio: 59.1 (2024 est.)
Youth dependency ratio: 50.2 (2024 est.)
Elderly dependency ratio: 8.9 (2024 est.)
Potential support ratio: 11.2 (2024 est.)

Median age
Total: 31.5 years (2024 est.)
Male: 30.1 years
Female: 32.8 years

Population growth rate: 0.78% (2024 est.)

Birth rate: 14.9 births/1,000 population (2024 est.)

Death rate: 6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2024 est.)

Population distribution: population sparsely distributed throughout the country; the capital of Ulaanbaatar and the northern city of Darhan support the highest population densities

Urbanization
Urban population: 69.1% of total population (2023)
Rate of urbanization: 1.4% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)

Major urban areas
Population: 1.673 million ULAANBAATAR (capital) (2023)

Sex ratio
At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
0-14 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female
Total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2024 est.)

Maternal mortality ratio: 41 deaths/100,000 live births (2023 est.)

Infant mortality rate
Total: 19.4 deaths/1,000 live births (2024 est.)
Male: 22.4 deaths/1,000 live births
Female: 16.2 deaths/1,000 live births

Life expectancy at birth
Total population: 71.9 years (2024 est.)
Male: 67.8 years
Female: 76.3 years

Total fertility rate: 1.87 children born/woman (2024 est.)

Drinking water source
Urban: 5.8% of population (2022 est.)
Rural: 40.3% of population (2022 est.)
Total: 16.5% of population (2022 est.)

Sanitation facility access
Urban: 2.2% of population (2022 est.)
Rural: 21.3% of population (2022 est.)
Total: 8.1% of population (2022 est.)

Children under the age of 5 years underweight: 1.9% (2023 est.)

Youth unemployment
Rate (ages 15-24): 5.5% (2024 est.); 5.6% (2023 est.); 6.3% (2022 est.)
Rate (ages 15-24) note: % of labor force seeking employment

Capital
Name: Ulaanbaatar
Geographic coordinates: 47 55 N, 106 55 E
Time difference: UTC+8 (13 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
Daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Saturday in March; ends last Saturday in September
Time zone note: Mongolia has two time zones - Ulaanbaatar Time (8 hours in advance of UTC) and Hovd Time (7 hours in advance of UTC)
Etymology: the name means 'red hero' in Mongolian and honors national hero Damdin SUKHBAATAR, leader of the partisan army that, with Soviet help, liberated Mongolia from Chinese occupation in the early 1920s

Administrative divisions: 21 provinces (aymguud, singular - aymag) and 1 municipality* (hot); Arhangay, Bayanhongor, Bayan-Olgiy, Bulgan, Darhan-Uul, Dornod, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Dzavhan (Zavkhan), Govi-Altay, Govisumber, Hentiy, Hovd, Hovsgol, Omnogovi, Orhon, Ovorhangay, Selenge, Suhbaatar, Tov, Ulaanbaatar*, Uvs

Legal system: civil law system influenced by Soviet and Romano-Germanic systems; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislative acts

International law organization participation: has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; accepts ICCt jurisdiction

Executive branch
Chief of state: President Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH (since 25 June 2021)
Head of government: Prime Minister Gombojavyn ZANDANSHATAR (since 13 June 2025)
Cabinet: Cabinet directly appointed by the prime minister
Election/appointment process: presidential candidates nominated by political parties represented in the State Great Hural and directly elected by simple-majority popular vote for one 6-year term; following legislative elections, the State Great Hural usually elects the leader of the majority party or majority coalition as prime minister
Most recent election date: 9 June 2021
2021: Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH elected president in first round; percent of vote - Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH (MPP) 68%, Dangaasuren ENKHBAT (RPEC) 20.1%, Sodnomzundui ERDENE (DP) 6%
2017: Khaltmaa BATTULGA elected president in second round; percent of vote in first round - Khaltmaa BATTULGA (DP) 38.1%, Miyegombo ENKHBOLD (MPP) 30.3%, Sainkhuu GANBAATAR (MPRP) 30.2%, invalid 1.4%; percent of vote in second round - Khaltmaa BATTULGA 55.2%, Miyegombo ENKHBOLD 44.8%
Expected date of next election: 2,027

Legislative branch
Legislature name: State Great Hural (Ulsiin Ih Hural)
Legislative structure: unicameral
Number of seats: 126 (all directly elected)
Electoral system: mixed system
Scope of elections: full renewal
Term in office: 4 years
Most recent election date: 6/28/2024
Parties elected and seats per party: Mongolian People's Party (MPP) (68); Democratic Party (DP) (42); HUN Party (8); Other (8)
Percentage of women in chamber: 25.4%
Expected date of next election: June 2,028

Flag description: three equal vertical bands of red (left side), blue, and red; centered on the left-side red band is the national emblem in yellow, the soyombo, which is an abstract representation of fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol

National anthem
Title: 'Mongol ulsyn toriin duulal' (National Anthem of Mongolia)
Lyrics/music: Tsendiin DAMDINSUREN/Bilegiin DAMDINSUREN and Luvsanjamts MURJORJ
History: music adopted 1950, lyrics adopted 2006; lyrics altered on numerous occasions

National heritage
Total World Heritage Sites: 6 (4 cultural, 2 natural)
Selected World Heritage Site locales:

Real gdp growth rate: 4.9% (2024 est.); 7.4% (2023 est.); 5% (2022 est.)
Note: annual GDP % growth based on constant local currency

Real gdp per capita: 4.9% (2024 est.); 7.4% (2023 est.); 5% (2022 est.)
Note: annual GDP % growth based on constant local currency

Gdp composition by end use
Household consumption: 49.8% (2024 est.)
Government consumption: 16.3% (2024 est.)
Investment in fixed capital: 26.8% (2024 est.)
Investment in inventories: 7.8% (2024 est.)
Exports of goods and services: 69.1% (2024 est.)
Imports of goods and services: -69.8% (2024 est.)
Note: figures may not total 100% due to rounding or gaps in data collection

Gdp composition by sector of origin
Agriculture: 7.4% (2024 est.)
Industry: 38.1% (2024 est.)
Services: 44.2% (2024 est.)
Note: figures may not total 100% due to non-allocated consumption not captured in sector-reported data

Industries: construction and construction materials; mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar, tin, tungsten, gold); oil; food and beverages; processing of animal products, cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing

Industrial production growth rate: 6.5% (2024 est.)
Note: annual % change in industrial value added based on constant local currency

Labor force: 1.449 million (2024 est.)
Note: number of people ages 15 or older who are employed or seeking work

Unemployment rate: 5.5% (2024 est.); 5.6% (2023 est.); 6.3% (2022 est.)
Note: % of labor force seeking employment

Youth unemployment
Rate (ages 15-24): 5.5% (2024 est.); 5.6% (2023 est.); 6.3% (2022 est.)
Rate (ages 15-24) note: % of labor force seeking employment

Budget
Revenues: $4.721 billion (2021 est.)
Expenditures: $5.623 billion (2021 est.)
Note: central government revenues (excluding grants) and expenditures converted to US dollars at average official exchange rate for year indicated

Taxes and other revenues: 16.9% (of GDP) (2021 est.)
Note: central government tax revenue as a % of GDP

Exports: $15.501 billion (2023 est.); $10.989 billion (2022 est.); $8.95 billion (2021 est.)
Note: balance of payments - exports of goods and services in current dollars
Commodities: coal, copper ore, gold, iron ore, crude petroleum (2023)
Commodities note: top five export commodities based on value in dollars

Imports: $13.545 billion (2023 est.); $12.112 billion (2022 est.); $9.256 billion (2021 est.)
Note: balance of payments - imports of goods and services in current dollars
Commodities: cars, trucks, trailers, tractors, construction vehicles (2023)
Commodities note: top five import commodities based on value in dollars

Electricity
Installed generating capacity: 1.51 million kW (2023 est.)
Consumption: 8.997 billion kWh (2023 est.)
Exports: 24 million kWh (2023 est.)
Imports: 2.224 billion kWh (2023 est.)
Transmission/distribution losses: 1.113 billion kWh (2023 est.)
Access electrification - total population: 100% (2022 est.)
Generation sources fossil fuels: 90.4% of total installed capacity (2023 est.)
Generation sources solar: 2.4% of total installed capacity (2023 est.)
Generation sources wind: 6.4% of total installed capacity (2023 est.)
Generation sources hydroelectricity: 0.8% of total installed capacity (2023 est.)

Coal
Production: 64.824 million metric tons (2023 est.)
Consumption: 8.941 million metric tons (2023 est.)
Exports: 55.884 million metric tons (2023 est.)
Imports: 900 metric tons (2023 est.)
Proven reserves: 2.52 billion metric tons (2023 est.)

Petroleum
Total petroleum production: 15,000 bbl/day (2023 est.)
Refined petroleum consumption: 39,000 bbl/day (2023 est.)

Carbon dioxide emissions: 19.203 million metric tonnes of CO&sub2; (2023 est.)
From coal and metallurgical coke: 13.489 million metric tonnes of CO&sub2; (2023 est.)
From petroleum and other liquids: 5.714 million metric tonnes of CO&sub2; (2023 est.)

Energy consumption per capita: 67.132 million Btu/person (2023 est.)

Telephones
Fixed lines total subscriptions: 524,000 (2023 est.)
Fixed lines subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 15 (2023 est.)
Mobile cellular total subscriptions: 4.84 million (2023 est.)
Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 142 (2022 est.)

Internet
Users percent of population: 83% (2023 est.)

Broadband fixed subscriptions
Total: 499,000 (2023 est.)
Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 15 (2023 est.)

Military expenditures: 0.7% of GDP (2024 est.); 0.6% of GDP (2023 est.); 0.6% of GDP (2022 est.); 0.8% of GDP (2021 est.); 0.8% of GDP (2020 est.)

Airports: 37 (2025)

Railways
Total: 1,815 km (2017)
Broad gauge: 1,815 km (2017) 1.520-m gauge
Note: national operator Ulaanbaatar Railway is jointly owned by the Mongolian Government and by the Russian State Railway

Merchant marine
Total: 318 (2023)
By type: bulk carrier 8, container ship 8, general cargo 151, oil tanker 58, other 93