Background: Speculation over the existence of a 'southern land' was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Peninsula region and areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1838 was it established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands. Various 'firsts' were achieved in the early 20th century including: 1902 first balloon flight (by British explorer Robert Falcon SCOTT); 1912 first to the South Pole (five Norwegian explorers under Roald AMUNDSEN); 1928 first fixed-wing aircraft flight (by Australian adventurer/explorer Sir Hubert WILKINS); 1929 first flight over the South Pole (by Americans Richard BYRD and Bernt BALCHEN); and 1935 first transantarctic flight (American Lincoln ELLSWORTH). Following World War II there was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent. A number of countries have set up year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims but no other country recognizes these claims. In order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the continent an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in 1959 it entered into force in 1961.

Land boundaries: see entry on _#_Disputes

Coastline: 17,968 km

Maritime claims: see entry on _#_Disputes

Climate: severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has most moderate climate; warmest temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing

Terrain: about 98% thick continental ice sheet, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to 4,897 meters high; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of coastline and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent

Natural resources: none presently exploited; coal and iron ore; chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum, and hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial quantities

Land use: arable land: 0%; permanent crops: 0%; pastures 0%; meadows and forest and woodland 0%; other 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)

Geography
Note: none; Article 7 of the Antarctic Treaty states that advance notice of all activities and the introduction of military personnel must be given

Population: no indigenous inhabitants; staffing of research stations varies seasonally; Summer (January) population--4,120; Argentina 207, Australia 268, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Chile 256, China NA, Ecuador NA, Finland 16, France 78, Germany 32, Greenpeace 12, India 60, Italy 210, Japan 59, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 264, Norway 23, Peru 39, Poland NA, South Africa 79, Spain 43, Sweden 10, UK 116, Uruguay NA, US 1,666, USSR 565 (1989-90; Winter (July) population--1,066 total; Argentina 150, Australia 71, Brazil 12, Chile 73, China NA, France 33, Germany 19, Greenpeace 5, India 21, Japan 38, South Korea 14, NZ 11, Poland NA, South Africa 12, UK 69, Uruguay NA, US 225, USSR 313 (1989-90; Year-round stations--42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2, France 1, Germany 2, Greenpeace 1, India 2, Japan 2, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Poland 1, South Africa 1, UK 5, Uruguay 1, US 3, USSR 6 (1990-91; Summer only stations--34 total; Argentina 1, Australia 3, Chile 5, Finland 1, Germany 4, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 1, NZ 2, Norway 1, Peru 1, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Sweden 2, UK 1, US 3, USSR 5 (1989-90)

Environment
Current issues: mostly uninhabitable; katabatic (gravity) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise around the coast, as does a circumpolar ocean current; during summer more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; in April 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield, which protects the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had dwindled to its lowest level ever over Antarctica; subject to active volcanism (Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak

Country name: conventional long form: none

Government type: The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, established for at least 30 years a legal framework for peaceful use, scientific research, and deferral of legal questions regarding territorial claims. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings--the last meeting was held in Madrid (Spain) in April 1991. Consultative (voting) members include seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and nonclaimant nations. The US and other nations have made no claims, but have reserved the right to claim territory. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are--Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are--Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and the USSR. Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parenthesis, are--Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czechoslovakia (1962), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), and Switzerland (1990).
Antarctic Treaty Summary: Articles 12 13 14deal with upholding interpreting and amending the treaty among involved nations. Other agreements: more than 150 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include--Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected by some signatories and is likely to be replaced in 1991 by a comprehensive environmental protection agreement that defers minerals development for a long period. Antarctica AntarcticaAntarctica

Economy overview: No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad. Exploitation of mineral resources is unlikely because of technical difficulties, high costs, and objections by environmentalists.

Airports: 37 total; 27 usable; none with permanent hard-surface runways; 2 with runways over 3,659 m; 5 with runways 2,440-3,659 m; 4 with runways 1,220-2,439 m

Disputes international: Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary below; sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and UK; Brazil has noted possible Latin claims; the US and USSR do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (but reserve the right to do so; no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90o west and 150o west