Background: Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home to Islam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The king's official title is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudi state was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman AL SAUD (Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the Arabian Peninsula. One of his male descendants rules the country today, as required by the country's 1992 Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the liberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuing presence of foreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation of Kuwait became a source of tension between the royal family and the public until all operational US troops left the country in 2003. Major terrorist attacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strong ongoing campaign against domestic terrorism and extremism. US troops returned to the Kingdom in October 2019 after attacks on Saudi oil infrastructure.

Geographic coordinates: 25 00 N, 45 00 E

Map reference: Middle East

Area
Total: 2,149,690 km²
Land: 2,149,690 km²
Water: 0 km²
Comparative: slightly more than one-fifth the size of the US

Land boundaries
Total: 4,272 km
Border countries: (7) Iraq 811 km; Jordan 731 km; Kuwait 221 km; Oman 658 km; Qatar 87 km; UAE 457 km; Yemen 1,307 km

Coastline: 2,640 km

Maritime claims
Territorial sea: 12 nm
Contiguous zone: 18 nm
Continental shelf: not specified

Climate: harsh, dry desert with great temperature extremes

Terrain: mostly sandy desert

Elevation
Highest point: As Sarawat range, 3,000 m
Lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
Mean elevation: 665 m

Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, gold, copper

Land use
Agricultural land: 80.7% (2018 est.)
Agricultural land arable land: 1.5% (2018 est.)
Agricultural land permanent crops: 0.1% (2018 est.)
Agricultural land permanent pasture: 79.1% (2018 est.)
Forest: 0.5% (2018 est.)
Other: 18.8% (2018 est.)

Irrigated land: 11,910 km² (2018)

Major watersheds area km²: Indian Ocean drainage: (Persian Gulf) Tigris and Euphrates (918,044 km²)

Total water withdrawal
Municipal: 3.39 billion cubic meters (2020 est.)
Industrial: 1.4 billion cubic meters (2020 est.)
Agricultural: 21.2 billion cubic meters (2020 est.)

Total renewable water resources: 2.4 billion cubic meters (2020 est.)

Natural hazards: frequent sand and dust storms

Geography
Note: Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world without a river; extensive coastlines on the Persian Gulf and Red Sea allow for considerable shipping (especially of crude oil) through the Persian Gulf and Suez Canal

Population
Distribution: historically a population that was mostly nomadic or semi-nomadic, the Saudi population has become more settled since petroleum was discovered in the 1930s; most of the economic activities - and with it the country's population - is concentrated in a wide area across the middle of the peninsula, from Ad Dammam in the east, through Riyadh in the interior, to Mecca-Medina in the west near the Red Sea: 35,939,806 (2023 est.)
Note: immigrants make up 38.3% of the total population, according to UN data (2019)
Growth rate: 1.65% (2023 est.)
Below poverty line: NA

Nationality
Noun: Saudi(s)
Adjective: Saudi or Saudi Arabian

Ethnic groups: Arab 90%, Afro-Asian 10%

Languages: Arabic (official)
Major-language samples:

Religions: Muslim (official; citizens are 85-90% Sunni and 10-12% Shia), other (includes Eastern Orthodox, Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, and Sikh) (2020 est.)
Note: despite having a large expatriate community of various faiths (more than 30% of the population), most forms of public religious expression inconsistent with the government-sanctioned interpretation of Sunni Islam are restricted; non-Muslims are not allowed to have Saudi citizenship and non-Muslim places of worship are not permitted (2013)

Age structure
0-14 years: 23.45% (male 4,298,399/female 4,130,547)
15-64 years: 72.36% (male 15,251,742/female 10,752,649)
65 years and over: 4.19% (2023 est.) (male 799,270/female 707,199)

Dependency ratios
Total dependency ratio: 40.4
Youth dependency ratio: 36.8
Elderly dependency ratio: 3.7
Potential support ratio: 27.4 (2021 est.)

Median age
Total: 32 years (2023 est.)
Male: 34.2 years
Female: 29 years

Population growth rate: 1.65% (2023 est.)

Birth rate: 13.9 births/1,000 population (2023 est.)

Death rate: 3.5 deaths/1,000 population (2023 est.)

Net migration rate: 6.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2023 est.)

Population distribution: historically a population that was mostly nomadic or semi-nomadic, the Saudi population has become more settled since petroleum was discovered in the 1930s; most of the economic activities - and with it the country's population - is concentrated in a wide area across the middle of the peninsula, from Ad Dammam in the east, through Riyadh in the interior, to Mecca-Medina in the west near the Red Sea

Urbanization
Urban population: 85% of total population (2023)
Rate of urbanization: 1.69% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)

Major urban areas
Population: 7.682 million RIYADH (capital), 4.863 million Jeddah, 2.150 million Mecca, 1.573 million Medina, 1.329 million Ad Dammam, 872,000 million Hufuf-Mubarraz (2023)

Environment
Current issues: desertification; depletion of underground water resources; the lack of perennial rivers or permanent water bodies has prompted the development of extensive seawater desalination facilities; coastal pollution from oil spills; air pollution; waste management
International agreements party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping-London Protocol, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
International agreements signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

Air pollutants
Particulate matter emissions: 57.16 micrograms per cubic meter (2019 est.)
Carbon dioxide emissions: 563.45 megatons (2016 est.)
Methane emissions: 45.47 megatons (2020 est.)

Sex ratio
At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
0-14 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.42 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 1.13 male(s)/female
Total population: 1.31 male(s)/female (2023 est.)

Maternal mortality ratio: 16 deaths/100,000 live births (2020 est.)

Infant mortality rate
Total: 12 deaths/1,000 live births (2023 est.)
Male: 13.2 deaths/1,000 live births
Female: 10.7 deaths/1,000 live births

Life expectancy at birth
Total population: 76.9 years (2023 est.)
Male: 75.3 years
Female: 78.6 years

Total fertility rate: 1.89 children born/woman (2023 est.)

Contraceptive prevalence rate: 27.9% (2019)

Drinking water source
Improved urban: NA
Improved rural: NA
Improved total: 100% of population
Unimproved urban: NA
Unimproved rural: NA
Unimproved total: 0% of population (2020 est.)

Current health expenditure: 5.5% of GDP (2018)

Physicians density: 2.74 physicians/1,000 population (2020)

Hospital bed density: 2.2 beds/1,000 population (2017)

Obesity adult prevalence rate: 35.4% (2016)

Alcohol consumption
Per capita total: 0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
Per capita beer: 0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
Per capita wine: 0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
Per capita spirits: 0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
Per capita other alcohols: 0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)

Tobacco use
Total: 14.3% (2020 est.)
Male: 26.5% (2020 est.)
Female: 2% (2020 est.)

Children under the age of 5 years underweight: 3.5% (2020) NA

Education expenditures: 7.8% of GDP (2020) NA

Literacy
Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
Total population: 97.6%
Male: 98.6%
Female: 96% (2020)

School life expectancy primary to tertiary education
Total: 17 years
Male: 17 years
Female: 16 years (2021)

Youth unemployment
Rate ages 15 24 total: 28.8% (2021 est.)
Rate ages 15 24 male: 22.4%
Rate ages 15 24 female: 47.9%

Country name
Conventional long form: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Conventional short form: Saudi Arabia
Local long form: Al Mamlakah al Arabiyah as Suudiyah
Local short form: Al Arabiyah as Suudiyah
Etymology: named after the ruling dynasty of the country, the House of Saud; the name "Arabia" can be traced back many centuries B.C., the ancient Egyptians referred to the region as "Ar Rabi"

Government type: absolute monarchy

Capital
Name: Riyadh
Geographic coordinates: 24 39 N, 46 42 E
Time difference: UTC+3 (8 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
Etymology: the name derives from the Arabic word "riyadh," meaning "gardens," and refers to various oasis towns in the area that merged to form the city

Administrative divisions: 13 regions (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Bahah, Al Hudud ash Shamaliyah (Northern Border), Al Jawf, Al Madinah al Munawwarah (Medina), Al Qasim, Ar Riyad (Riyadh), Ash Sharqiyah (Eastern), 'Asir, Ha'il, Jazan, Makkah al Mukarramah (Mecca), Najran, Tabuk

Independence: 23 September 1932 (unification of the kingdom)

National holiday: Saudi National Day (Unification of the Kingdom), 23 September (1932)

Constitution
History: 1 March 1992 - Basic Law of Government, issued by royal decree, serves as the constitutional framework and is based on the Qur'an and the life and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad
Amendments: proposed by the king directly or proposed to the king by the Consultative Assembly or by the Council of Ministers; passage by the king through royal decree; Basic Law amended many times, last in 2017

Legal system: Islamic (sharia) legal system with some elements of Egyptian, French, and customary law; note - several secular codes have been introduced; commercial disputes handled by special committees

International law organization participation: has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt

Citizenship
Citizenship by birth: no
Citizenship by descent only: the father must be a citizen of Saudi Arabia; a child born out of wedlock in Saudi Arabia to a Saudi mother and unknown father
Dual citizenship recognized: no
Residency requirement for naturalization: 5 years

Suffrage:

Executive branch
Chief of state: King SALMAN bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (since 23 January 2015); Crown Prince MUHAMMAD BIN SALMAN bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (born 31 August 1985)
Head of government: Crown Prince and Prime Minister MUHAMMAD BIN SALMAN bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (since 27 September 2022)
Cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch every 4 years and includes many royal family members
Elections/appointments: none; the monarchy is hereditary; an Allegiance Council created by royal decree in October 2006 established a committee of Saudi princes for a voice in selecting future Saudi kings

Legislative branch
Description: unicameral Consultative Council or Majlis al-Shura (150 seats plus a speaker; members appointed by the monarch to serve 4-year terms); note - in early 2013, the monarch granted women 30 seats on the Council
Note: composition as of 2021 - men 121, women 30, percent of women 19.9%

Judicial branch
Highest courts: High Court (consists of the court chief and organized into circuits with 3-judge panels, except for the criminal circuit, which has a 5-judge panel for cases involving major punishments)
Judge selection and term of office: High Court chief and chiefs of the High Court Circuits appointed by royal decree upon the recommendation of the Supreme Judiciary Council, a 10-member body of high-level judges and other judicial heads; new judges and assistant judges serve 1- and 2-year probations, respectively, before permanent assignment
Subordinate courts: Court of Appeals; Specialized Criminal Court, first-degree courts composed of general, criminal, personal status, and commercial courts; Labor Court; a hierarchy of administrative courts

Political parties and leaders: none

International organization participation: ABEDA, AfDB (nonregional member), AFESD, AMF, BIS, BRICS, CAEU, CP, FAO, G-20, G-77, GCC, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOOSA, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

Diplomatic representation
In the us chief of mission: Ambassador Reema Bint Bandar Bin Sultan AL SAUD (since 8 July 2019)
In the us chancery: 601 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20,037
In the us telephone: [1] (202) 342-3,800
In the us FAX: [1] (202) 295-3,625
In the us email address and website:
From the us chief of mission: Ambassador Michael RATNEY (since 27 April 2023)
From the us embassy: Riyadh 11,564
From the us mailing address: 6,300 Riyadh Place, Washington DC 20,521-6,300
From the us telephone: [966] (11) 835-4,000
From the us FAX: [966] (11) 488-7,360
From the us email address and website:

Flag description: green, a traditional color in Islamic flags, with the Shahada or Muslim creed in large white Arabic script (translated as "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God") above a white horizontal saber (the tip points to the hoist side); design dates to the early twentieth century and is closely associated with the Al Saud family, which established the kingdom in 1932; the flag is manufactured with differing obverse and reverse sides so that the Shahada reads - and the sword points - correctly from right to left on both sides
Note: the only national flag to display an inscription as its principal design; one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Paraguay

National symbols: palm tree surmounting two crossed swords; national colors: green, white

National anthem
Name: "Aash Al Maleek" (Long Live Our Beloved King)
Lyrics/music: Ibrahim KHAFAJI/Abdul Rahman al-KHATEEB
Note: music adopted 1947, lyrics adopted 1984

National heritage
Total World Heritage Sites: 6 (all cultural)
Selected World Heritage Site locales:

Economy overview: high-income, oil-based Middle Eastern economy; OPEC leader; diversifying portfolio; declining per-capita incomes; young labor force; key human capital gaps; heavy bureaucracy and increasing corruption; substantial poverty; low innovation economy

Real gdp purchasing power parity:
Note: data are in 2017 dollars

Real gdp growth rate:

Real gdp per capita:
Note: data are in 2017 dollars

Gdp composition by end use
Household consumption: 41.3% (2017 est.)
Government consumption: 24.5% (2017 est.)
Investment in fixed capital: 23.2% (2017 est.)
Investment in inventories: 4.7% (2017 est.)
Exports of goods and services: 34.8% (2017 est.)
Imports of goods and services: -28.6% (2017 est.)

Gdp composition by sector of origin
Agriculture: 2.6% (2017 est.)
Industry: 44.2% (2017 est.)
Services: 53.2% (2017 est.)

Agriculture products: milk, dates, poultry, fruit, watermelons, barley, wheat, potatoes, eggs, tomatoes

Industries: crude oil production, petroleum refining, basic petrochemicals, ammonia, industrial gases, sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), cement, fertilizer, plastics, metals, commercial ship repair, commercial aircraft repair, construction

Industrial production growth rate: 1.71% (2021 est.)

Labor force: 16.06 million (2021 est.)
Note: comprised of 3.1 million Saudis and 10.7 million non-Saudis

Unemployment rate:
Note: data are for total population; unemployment among Saudi nationals is more than double

Youth unemployment
Rate ages 15 24 total: 28.8% (2021 est.)
Rate ages 15 24 male: 22.4%
Rate ages 15 24 female: 47.9%

Population below poverty line: NA

Gini index
Coefficient distribution of family income: 45.9 (2013 est.)

Household income or consumption by percentage share
Lowest 10%: NA
Highest 10%: NA

Budget
Revenues: $247.093 billion (2019 est.)
Expenditures: $282.4 billion (2019 est.)
Surplus  or deficit: -8.9% (of GDP) (2017 est.)

Taxes and other revenues: 8.6% (of GDP) (2020 est.)

Public debt:

Revenue
From forest resources: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)
From coal: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)

Fiscal year: calendar year

Inflation rate consumer prices:

Current account balance:

Exports:
Partners: China 19%, India 10%, Japan 9%, South Korea 8%, United Arab Emirates 5% (2021)
Commodities: crude petroleum, refined petroleum, polymers, industrial alcohols, natural gas (2021)

Imports:
Partners: China 19%, United Arab Emirates 15%, United States 8%, India 6%, Germany 4% (2021)
Commodities: cars, refined petroleum, broadcasting equipment, gold, packaged medicines (2021)

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:

Debt external:

Exchange rates:

Electricity
Access electrification-total population: 100% (2021)
Installed generating capacity: 76.785 million kW (2020 est.)
Consumption: 331,381,500,000 kWh (2019 est.)
Exports: 0 kWh (2020 est.)
Imports: 0 kWh (2020 est.)
Transmission/distribution losses: 31.055 billion kWh (2019 est.)
Generation sources fossil fuels: 99.9% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Generation sources nuclear: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Generation sources solar: 0.2% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Generation sources wind: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Generation sources hydroelectricity: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Generation sources tide and wave: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Generation sources geothermal: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Generation sources biomass and waste: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

Coal
Production: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)
Consumption: 73,000 metric tons (2020 est.)
Exports: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)
Imports: 73,000 metric tons (2020 est.)
Proven reserves: 0 metric tons (2019 est.)

Petroleum
Total petroleum production: 10,815,700 bbl/day (2021 est.)
Refined petroleum consumption: 3,182,300 bbl/day (2019 est.)
Crude oil and lease condensate exports: 7,340,800 bbl/day (2018 est.)
Crude oil and lease condensate imports: 0 bbl/day (2018 est.)
Crude oil estimated reserves: 258.6 billion barrels (2021 est.)

Refined petroleum
Products production: 2.476 million bbl/day (2015 est.)
Products exports: 1.784 million bbl/day (2015 est.)
Products imports: 609,600 bbl/day (2015 est.)

Natural gas
Production: 113,776,648,000 cubic meters (2020 est.)
Consumption: 113,776,648,000 cubic meters (2020 est.)
Exports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)
Imports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)
Proven reserves: 9,422,812,000,000 cubic meters (2021 est.)

Carbon dioxide emissions: 579.925 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
From coal and metallurgical coke: 300,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
From petroleum and other liquids: 358.414 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
From consumed natural gas: 221.211 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

Energy consumption per capita: 296.949 million Btu/person (2019 est.)

Telephones
Fixed lines total subscriptions: 6,773,272 (2022 est.)
Fixed lines subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 19 (2022 est.)
Mobile cellular total subscriptions: 48,197,996 (2022 est.)
Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 132 (2022 est.)

Broadcast media: broadcast media are state-controlled; state-run TV operates 4 networks; Saudi Arabia is a major market for pan-Arab satellite TV broadcasters; state-run radio operates several networks; multiple international broadcasters are available

Internet
Country code: .sa
Users total: 36 million (2021 est.)
Users percent of population: 100% (2021 est.)

Broadband fixed subscriptions
Total: 7,890,261 (2020 est.)
Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 23 (2020 est.)

Military expenditures:

Military and security forces:
Note 1: the SANG (also known as the White Army) is a land force comprised off tribal elements loyal to the House of Saud; it is responsible for internal security, protecting the royal family, and external defense
Note 2: the SAAF includes the Saudi Royal Guard Command, a unit which provides security and protection to the ruling family and other dignitaries

Military service age and obligation: men (17-40) and women (21-40) may volunteer for military service; no conscription (2023)
Note 1: in 2021, women were allowed to serve in the Army, Air Defense, Navy, Strategic Missile Force, medical services, and internal security forces up to the rank of non-commissioned officer
Note 2: the National Guard is restricted to citizens, but the regular Saudi military has hired foreigners on contract for operations associated with its intervention in Yemen

Space program
Overview: has one of the more advanced space programs in the region; manufactures and operates communications, remote sensing (RS), and scientific satellites; develops a range of satellite subsystems and payload technologies; SSC’s missions also include accelerating economic diversification, enhancing research and development, and raising private sector participation in the global space industry; is the main founder and financier of the Arab Satellite Communications Organization (Arabsat; launched in 1976; headquartered in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and the primary satellite communications service provider for over 170 million persons in the Arab world); cooperates with the space agencies and industries of a wide range of countries, including those of Belarus, China, the European Space Agency and its member states (particularly France, Germany, Greece, and Hungary), India, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Ukraine, the UAE, the UK, and the US; member of the Arab Space Cooperation Group (established by the UAE in 2019 and includes Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, and Sudan) (2023)
Overview note: further details about the key activities, programs, and milestones of the country’s space program, as well as government spending estimates on the space sector, appear in space programs

Terrorist groups
Terrorist groups: Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS); al-Qa’ida; al-Qa’ida in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)
Note: details about the history, aims, leadership, organization, areas of operation, tactics, targets, weapons, size, and sources of support of the group(s) appear(s) in terrorist organizations

National air transport system
Number of registered air carriers: 12 (2020)
Inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 230
Annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 39,141,660 (2018)
Annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 1,085,470,000 (2018) mt-km

Civil aircraft registration country code prefix: HZ

Airports: 214 (2021)
With paved runways: 82
With paved runways civil airports: 17
With paved runways military airports: 10
With paved runways joint use (civil-military) airports: 6
With paved runways other airports: 49
With paved runways note: paved runways have a concrete or asphalt surface but not all have facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control; the length of a runway required for aircraft to safely operate depends on a number of factors including the type of aircraft, the takeoff weight (including passengers, cargo, and fuel), engine types, flap settings, landing speed, elevation of the airport, and average maximum daily air temperature; paved runways can reach a length of 5,000 m (16,000 ft.), but the “typical” length of a commercial airline runway is between 2,500-4,000 m (8,000-13,000 ft.)
With unpaved runways: 132
With unpaved runways note: unpaved runways have a surface composition such as grass or packed earth and are most suited to the operation of light aircraft; unpaved runways are usually short, often less than 1,000 m (3,280 ft.) in length; airports with unpaved runways often lack facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control

Heliports: 10 (2021)

Pipelines: 209 km condensate, 2,940 km gas, 1,183 km liquid petroleum gas, 5,117 km oil, 1,151 km refined products (2013)

Railways
Total: 5,410 km (2016)
Standard gauge: 5,410 km (2016) 1.435-m gauge (with branch lines and sidings)

Roadways
Total: 221,372 km (2006)
Paved: 47,529 km (2006) (includes 3,891 km of expressways)
Unpaved: 173,843 km (2006)

Merchant marine
Total: 413 (2022)
By type: bulk carrier 6, container ship 1, general cargo 21, oil tanker 58, other 327

Ports and terminals
Major seaports: Ad Dammam, Al Jubayl, Jeddah, King Abdulla, Yanbu'
Container ports teus: Ad Dammam (1,770,000), Jeddah (4,882,342), King Abdulla (2,813,920) (2021)

Disputes international: Saudi Arabia-Bahrain: none identified

Refugees and internally displaced persons
Stateless persons: 70,000 (2022); note - thousands of biduns (stateless Arabs) are descendants of nomadic tribes who were not officially registered when national borders were established, while others migrated to Saudi Arabia in search of jobs; some have temporary identification cards that must be renewed every five years, but their rights remain restricted; most Palestinians have only legal resident status; some naturalized Yemenis were made stateless after being stripped of their passports when Yemen backed Iraq in its invasion of Kuwait in 1990; Saudi women cannot pass their citizenship on to their children, so if they marry a non-national, their children risk statelessness

Illicit drugs: regularly sentences drug traffickers to the death penalty, although a moratorium on executions for drug offences has been in place since at least 2020; improving anti-money-laundering legislation and enforcement