Map of Antarctica | Geography | People | Government | Economy | Energy | Communication
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Background: Speculation over the existence of a 'southern land' was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands. Several exploration 'firsts' were achieved in the early 20th century. Following World War II there was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent. A number of countries have set up year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims but not all countries recognize these claims. In order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the continent an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in 1959 it entered into force in 1961.


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Location: continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle

Geographic coordinates: 90 00 S 0 00 E

Map reference: Antarctic Region

Area
Total: 14 million km²
Land: 14 million km² (280,000 km² ice-free, 13.72 million km² ice-covered) (est.)
Note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North America, and South America, but larger than Australia and the subcontinent of Europe
Comparative: slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US

Land boundaries
Note: see entry on Disputes - international

Coastline: 17,968 km

Maritime claims: Australia Chile and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental claims but like the claims themselves these zones are not accepted by other countries; 21 of 28 Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims to Antarctic territory (although Russia and the US have reserved the right to do so) and do not recognize the claims of the other nations; also see the Disputes - international entry

Climate: severe low temperatures vary with latitude elevation and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing

Terrain: about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock with average elevations between 2000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land Wilkes Land the Antarctic Peninsula area and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent

Elevation
Extremes lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,555 m
Extremes highest point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m
Extremes note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under seawater

Natural resources: iron ore chromium copper gold nickel platinum and other minerals and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial quantities; none presently exploited; krill finfish and crab have been taken by commercial fisheries

Land use
Arable land: 0%
Permanent crops: 0%
Other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) (2005)

Irrigated land

Major rivers

Major watersheds area km²

Total water withdrawal

Total renewable water resources

Natural hazards: katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from ice shelf

Geography
Note: the coldest windiest highest (on average) and driest continent; during summer more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable


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Population
Note: 28 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic Treaty, operate through their National Antarctic Program a number of seasonal-only (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty); these stations' population of persons doing and supporting science or engaged in the management and protection of the Antarctic region varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel, including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research, are present in the waters of the treaty region; peak summer (December-February) population - 3,944 total; Argentina 417, Australia 200, Brazil 40, Bulgaria 15, Chile 224, China 70, Czech Republic 20, Ecuador 26, Finland 20, France 122, Germany 78, India 65, Italy 113, Japan 125, South Korea 60, NZ 85, Norway 44, Peru 28, Poland 40, Romania 13, Russia 429, South Africa 80, Spain 28, Sweden 20, Ukraine 24, UK 205, US 1,293, Uruguay 60 (2006-2007); winter (June-August) station population - 1,077 total; Argentina 176, Australia 62, Brazil 12, Chile 88, China 29, France 37, Germany 9, India 25, Italy 2, Japan 40, South Korea 15, NZ 10, Norway 7, Poland 12, Russia 148, South Africa 10, Ukraine 12, UK 37, US 337, Uruguay 9 (2006); research stations operated within the Antarctic Treaty area (south of 60 degrees south latitude) by National Antarctic Programs: year-round stations - 37 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 5, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1, Italy and France jointly 1 (2005); seasonal-only (summer) stations - 16 total; Bulgaria 1, Chile 1, Czech Republic 1, Ecuador 1, Finland 1, Germany 1, Italy 1, Japan 1, Norway 1, Peru 1, Romania 1, Russia 1, Spain 2, Sweden 1, UK 1 (2006-2007); in addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research (July 2007 est.)

Nationality

Ethnic groups

Languages

Religions

Demographic profile

Age structure

Dependency ratios

Median age

Population growth rate

Birth rate

Death rate

Net migration rate

Population distribution

Urbanization

Major urban areas

Environment
Current issues: in 1998 NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light passing through the hole damages the DNA of icefish an Antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled Antarctic marine plants; in 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming

Air pollutants

Sex ratio

Mothers mean age at first birth

Maternal mortality ratio

Infant mortality rate

Life expectancy at birth

Total fertility rate

Contraceptive prevalence rate

Drinking water source

Current health expenditure

Physicians density

Hospital bed density

Sanitation facility access

Hiv/Aids

Major infectious diseases

Obesity adult prevalence rate

Alcohol consumption

Tobacco use

Children under the age of 5 years underweight

Education expenditures

Literacy

School life expectancy primary to tertiary education

Youth unemployment


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Country name
Conventional long form: none
Conventional short form: Antarctica

Government type: Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961 establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica; the 29th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was held in Edinburgh UK in June 2006; at these periodic meetings decisions are made by consensus (not by vote) of all consultative member nations; at the end of 2006 there were 46 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 18 non-consultative; consultative (decision-making) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 21 non-claimant nations; the US and Russia have reserved the right to make claims; the US does not recognize the claims of others; Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; the years in parentheses indicate when a consultative member-nation acceded to the Treaty and when it was accepted as a consultative member while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory; claimant nations are - Argentina Australia Chile France NZ Norway and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium Brazil (1975/1983) Bulgaria (1978/1998) China (1983/1985) Ecuador (1987/1990) Finland (1984/1989) Germany (1979/1981) India (1983/1983) Italy (1981/1987) Japan South Korea (1986/1989) Netherlands (1967/1990) Peru (1981/1989) Poland (1961/1977) Russia South Africa Spain (1982/1988) Sweden (1984/1988) Ukraine (1992/2004) Uruguay (1980/1985) and the US; non-consultative members with year of accession in parentheses are - Austria (1987) Belarus (2006) Canada (1988) Colombia (1989) Cuba (1984) Czech Republic (1962/1993) Denmark (1965) Estonia (2001) Greece (1987) Guatemala (1991) Hungary (1984) North Korea (1987) Papua New Guinea (1981) Romania (1971) Slovakia (1962/1993) Switzerland (1990) Turkey (1996) and Venezuela (1999); note - Czechoslovakia acceded to the Treaty in 1962 and separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993; Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity such as weapons testing is prohibited but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel cooperation with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize dispute or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access including aerial observation to any area and may inspect all stations installations and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or ultimately by the ICJ; Articles 12 13 14 - deal with upholding interpreting and amending the treaty among involved nations; other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and Flora (1964) which were later incorporated into the Environmental Protocol; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains unratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through six specific annexes: 1) environmental impact assessment 2) conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora 3) waste disposal and waste management 4) prevention of marine pollution 5) area protection and management and 6) liability arising from environmental emergencies; it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 in Buenos Aires Argentina

Capital

Administrative divisions

Dependent areas

Independence

National holiday

Constitution

Legal system: Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; US law including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals such as murder may apply extraterritorially; some US laws directly apply to Antarctica; for example the Antarctic Conservation Act 16 U.S.C. section 2,401 et seq. provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities unless authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison; the National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities; Public Law 95-541 the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978 as amended in 1996 requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify in advance the Office of Oceans Room 5,805 Department of State Washington DC 20,520 which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty; for more information contact Permit Office Office of Polar Programs National Science Foundation Arlington Virginia 22,230; telephone: (703) 292-8,030 or visit their website at www.nsf.gov; more generally access to the Antarctic Treaty area that is to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees south latitude is subject to a number of relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the states party to the Antarctic Treaty

International law organization participation

Citizenship

Suffrage

Executive branch

Legislative branch

Judicial branch

Political parties and leaders

International organization participation

Diplomatic representation

Flag description

National symbols

National anthem

National heritage


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Economy overview: Fishing off the coast and tourism both based abroad account for Antarctica's limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2004-05 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 147,000 metric tons (estimated fishing from the area covered by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) which extends slightly beyond the Antarctic Treaty area). Unregulated fishing particularly of Patagonian toothfish is a serious problem. The CCAMLR determines the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 26,245 tourists visited in the 2005-06 Antarctic summer up from the 22,712 visitors the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that make trips during the summer. Most tourist trips last approximately two weeks.

Real gdp purchasing power parity

Real gdp growth rate

Real gdp per capita

Gross national saving

Gdp composition by end use

Gdp composition by sector of origin

Agriculture products

Industries

Industrial production growth rate

Labor force

Unemployment rate

Youth unemployment

Population below poverty line

Gini index

Household income or consumption by percentage share

Distribution of family income gini index

Budget

Taxes and other revenues

Public debt

Revenue

Fiscal year

Inflation rate consumer prices

Central bank discount rate

Commercial bank prime lending rate

Stock of narrow money

Stock of broad money

Stock of domestic credit

Market value of publicly traded shares

Current account balance

Exports

Imports

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold

Debt external

Stock of direct foreign investment at home

Stock of direct foreign investment abroad

Exchange rates


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Electricity

Coal

Petroleum

Crude oil

Refined petroleum

Natural gas

Carbon dioxide emissions

Energy consumption per capita


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Telephones
Main lines in use: 0; note - information for US bases only (2001)

Telephone system
General assessment: local systems at some research stations
Domestic: commercial cellular networks operating in a small number of locations
International: country code - 672; via satellite (including mobile Inmarsat and Iridium systems) from all research stations, ships, aircraft, and most field parties (2001)

Broadcast media

Internet
Country code: .aq
Hosts: 7,744 (2007)

Broadband fixed subscriptions


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Military expenditures

Military and security forces

Military service age and obligation

Space program

Terrorist groups


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National air transport system

Civil aircraft registration country code prefix

Airports: 26 (2007)
With unpaved runways total: 26
With unpaved runways over 3047 m: 5
With unpaved runways 2438 to 3047 m: 5
With unpaved runways 15-24 to 2437 m: 1
With unpaved runways 914 to 1523 m: 9
With unpaved runways under 914 m: 6 (2007)

Heliports
Note: all 37 year-round and 16 seasonal stations operated by National Antarctic Programs stations have restricted helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2007)

Pipelines

Railways

Roadways

Waterways

Merchant marine

Ports and terminals: there are no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal stations have offshore anchorages and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats barges and helicopters; a few stations have a basic wharf facility; US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S 166 40 E) and Palmer (64 43 S 64 03 W); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under 'Legal System'); all ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7 Antarctic Treaty; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent; relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the states parties to the Antarctic Treaty regulating access to the Antarctic Treaty area to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees of latitude south have to be complied with (see 'Legal System'); The Hydrographic Committee on Antarctica (HCA) a special hydrographic commission of International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) is responsible for hydrographic surveying and nautical charting matters in Antarctic Treaty area; it coordinates and facilitates provision of accurate and appropriate charts and other aids to navigation in support of safety of navigation in region; membership of HCA is open to any IHO Member State whose government has acceded to the Antarctic Treaty and which contributes resources and/or data to IHO Chart coverage of the area; members of HCA are Argentina Australia Brazil Chile China Ecuador France Germany Greece India Italy NZ Norway Russia South Africa Spain and the UK (2006)


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Disputes international: Antarctic Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government type entry); Argentina Australia Chile France NZ Norway and UK claim land and maritime sectors (some overlapping) for a large portion of the continent; the US and many other states do not recognize these territorial claims and have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right to do so); no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west

Refugees and internally displaced persons

Illicit drugs